History of modern psychology Essay

Psychology’s history cannot be understood adequately without knowing something of philosophy’s history. All of the important issues that concern modern psychologists have been addressed by philosophers (2008). I will discuss how the philosophers: Descartes, Locke, Hume, Mill, and Berkley. These individuals life work greatly influenced the development of modern psychology. The End of the Renaissance and the 17th century brought to history, the man who is â€Å"sometimes considered the father of modern philosophy, mathematics, physiology and psychology†, the great philosopher, Rene’ Descartes (Goodwin, 2008). Descartes was born in La Haye on March 31, 1596 of Joachim Descartes and Jeanne Brochard. He was one of a number of surviving children (two siblings and two half-siblings). His father was a lawyer and magistrate, which apparently left little time for family. Descartes’ mother died in May of the year following his birth, and he, his full brother and sister, Pierre and Jeanne, were left to be raised by their grandmother in La Haye. At around ten years of age, in 1606, he was sent to the Jesuit college of La Fleche. He studied there until 1614, and in 1615 entered the University of Poitiers, where a year later he received his Baccalaureate and License in Canon & Civil Law (2012). Goodwin (2008) summarized that, Descartes was a rationalist, believing that the way to true knowledge was through the systematic use of his reasoning abilities. Because he believed that some truths Were universal and could be arrived at through reason and without the necessity of sensory experience, he was also a nativist. In addition, he was a dualist and an interactionist, believing that mind and body were distinct essences, but that they had direct influence on each other. It is Descartes’ who is most likely responsible for many of the themes that came from the late Renaissance that are incorporated into the science of psychology today, but since that time there are many philosophers in the Western tradition that contributed to the formation of psychology as a discipline. Western Philosophers that Contributed to the Formation of Psychology as a Discipline John Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher. Locke is often classified as the first of the great English empiricists. Locke, according to Goodwin (2008) â€Å"is important to psychology as a consequence of the concepts expressed in two of his books, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690/1963) and Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693/1963) (p. 38). Goodwin (2008) explains further that the â€Å"former explains Locke’s views on how knowledge is acquired, how we as humans come to understand our world† (p. 38) and the â€Å"latter is based on a series of letters to a friend and shows how empiricist thinking could be applied to all aspects of a child’s education† (p. 38). David Hume was born near Edinburgh, Scotland. David Hume, was an empiricist/associationist that Goodwin (2008) summarizes was â€Å"known for making a distinction between impressions, which result from sensation, and ideas, which he said were faint copies of impressions† (p. 59). It is also said that he â€Å"identified the rules of association as resemblance, contiguity, and cause/effect† and â€Å"he believed that we cannot know causality absolutely, only that certain events occur together regularly† (Goodwin, 2008, p. 59). George Berkeley was born in or near Kilkenny, Ireland on 12 March 1685. He was raised in Dysart Castle (Flage, 2005). He was a bishop of the Anglican Church in Ireland and was one thinker that was especially concerned about the materialistic implications of seventeenth-century science (Goodwin, 2008, p. 43). Berkeley was one of the three most famous British Empiricists. (The other two are John Locke and David Hume. ). George Berkeley wrote a detailed analysis of visual perception based on empiricist arguments, in the process describing visual phenomena such as convergence, accommodation, and the effects of the inverted retinal image. He rejected Locke’s primary/secondary qualities distinction, and to counter materialism, he proposed (subjective idealism) that we cannot be sure of the reality of objects except through our belief in God, the Permanent Perceiver (Goodwin, 2008). Nineteenth-Century Development of the Science of Psychology John Stuart Mill was a child prodigy and one the leading British philosopher of the nineteenth century (Goodwin, 2008). Mill’s politics derived from and contributed to his psychology. As an empiricist, he believed that all knowledge came through experience and that under the proper circumstances, anyone could become knowledgeable. Thus, he favored government support for universal education and was appalled at the traditional English system that favored the landed gentry, an elite minority (Goodwin, 2008). According to Goodwin (2008), He brought British associationism to its zenith and he provided an analysis of scientific thinking that guides psychological research to this day. He was a key transition figure in the shift from the philosophy of the mind to the science of the mind. Immanuel Kant agreed with the empiricists that our knowledge is built from experience, and he argued that the more important question was how the process occurs. Kant derived the fundamental principles of human thought and action from human sensibility, understanding, and reason, all as sources of our autonomy; he balanced the contributions of these principles against the ineliminable inputs of external sensation and internal inclination beyond our own control; and he strove both to demarcate these principles from each other and yet to integrate them into a single system with human autonomy as both its foundation and its ultimate value and goal (Guyer, 2004). Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) is known as the founder of experimental psychology. He founded the first â€Å"school† of psychology, called structuralism. The main goal of Wundt’s school was to analyze the contents of the mind into its basic structural components or elements, using introspection of mental contents as the chief method (Goodwin, 2008). According to Goodwin (2008), Wundt is justifiably considered the first true psychologist of the modern era and although it is difficult to identify a single Wundtian among the early American psychologists, he had a strong influence on the origins of American psychology. Psychology, as a science is rooted in its origin of philosophy. Descartes, Hume, Mill, Berkeley, Locke, Kant, and Wundt were some of the brightest of their time. The development of modern psychology and its many branches would not be possible without the hard work and contributions of these individuals.

KFC Marketing plan Essay

Executive summary: Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) continues to be recognized as an earliest franchising company around the world(Teampaperwarehouse.com,2014,2014). Approximately half of KFC’s worldwide restaurant businesses are owned and operated by independent businessmen and women, KFC franchisees(George L,Paugh III). Today KFC is the leading fast food chain and has been successful in creating a renowned international reputation. Since 1960 KFC has targeted many foreign markets and is able to expand in multiple continents in which they have initiated a new challenge in conquering Asia. It has served in more than 80 countries and 25 percent of its restaurants are operated and run by the Company. The report is based on information from range of data sources, including newspapers, magazines, company reports, books and academic journals. Introduction Swot Analysis helps to know a firm where they are lacking behind and what Internal and External factors they are or can face in future.By taking the time to conduct this analysis you will gain a fresh prespective on what KFC offers, what obstacles KFC face, what competitive challenges it have to overcome, and what barriers to growth exist now or might exist going forward. KFC has been an established business but it can also face some problems which SWOT Analysis helps firms to recover. KFC operates in 74 countries and territories throughout the world. It was by Colonel Harland in Corbin, Kentucky. The business was then sold to two Louisville businessmen. In 1966 KFC was listed in New York Stock Exchange.Heublein Inc. acquired KFC in 1971 but soon after conflicts arose between Colonel and Heublein over quality control and cleanliness issues. In 1986, Pepsi Co acquired KFC, by that time KFC had expanded to 55 countries with over 6600 units. Due to strategic reasons, in 1997 PepsiCo spun off its restaurant businesses (Pizza Hut, Taco Bell and KFC) into a new company called Tricon Global Restaurants,  Inc. Today KFC is an iconic brand that is recognized in nearly every country around the world. The competitors of KFC have taken over a large market share. According to findings McDonalds about 35 percent of the share in Sandwich Segment while the Burger King owns about 16 percent of the market share in fast-food industry. The local restaurants in different countries where KFC has presence pose a threat to the company. KFC outsanding brand recognition, experienced management, high quality food, advanced operational systems and unique global infrastructure position help them to capitalize on global opportunities (Panda123,2013,Business and Economics). References: http://www.termpaperwarehouse.com/essay-on/Kentucky-Fried-Chicken-Kfc/38247 viewed on 25th April 2014 Functions of Management by Gpaugh [online] Available at http://www.studymode.com/essays/Functions-Of-Management-620143.html viewd on 25th April 2014 Antiessays.com.(2014).Strategic Management of Kfc – Essays by Panda123.[online] Available at http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/strategic managment-ofokfc-193565.html viewed on 26th April 2014 Marketing mix Available at www.entreprenuer.com/artcle/70824[online] viewed on 26th April 2014 Postioning.(2014) Available at www.strategicmanagmentinsight.com viewed on 28th April 2014 The Economic Times.(2005).KFC target women customer.[online]Available at http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2003-07-16/27531245_1_kfc-soul-food-chicken viewed on 27th April 2014 Tracy, B.(2014).Marketing.business-The 7 Ps of Marketing.[onlione] Entreprenuer.Available at http://www.entreprenuer.com/articles/70824

American Family and the Home Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Family and the Home - Essay Example The results obtained from the 10 usable questionnaires are analyzed in this section. The data, represented in graphs and tables shows the perception of the respondents regarding American family and the home. The first question required the respondents to describe their families. The results indicated that the families are crazy; happy, funny and entertaining; big, loving, crazy and loud; dysfunctional; simple; large and crazy; small and successful; diverse; and divorced. Most of the families are crazy while a few are happy and successful. Most of the families are not very successful as they ought to be as some are dysfunctional.The second question asked: â€Å"What is the ethnic origin of your family?† The results were; Jamaican; Syrian, Native American; Italian, German, Irish, Puerto Rican; African-American; German/Irish; Caucasian; and White. This indicates that many of the families in America are of different origins with African-American, Italian and German/Irish tying at 20 percent.The third and fourth questions asked the role of the fathers and the mothers in the family. Results indicated that in more than 50 percent of the families. Fathers were the breadwinners and disciplinarians while mothers played the role of homemakers. Fathers play leadership roles while mothers are caregivers. Other respondents indicated that their fathers are absent possibly due to divorce thereby leaving mothers with the sole role of providing for the family, comforting them and leading them. Such mothers nurture the children.

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOP) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOP) - Essay Example It is governed by ERISA (Employee Retirement Income Security Act). A stock option gives an employees of an organisation the right to buy shares at a price fixed (usually the market price, but sometimes lower) for a defined number of years into the future. Several options such as those based on the percentage of pay basis, a merit formula, an equal basis, or any other formula the company chooses might be granted (NCEO, 2005). According to the US Securities and Exchange Commission "an employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) is a retirement plan in which the company contributes its stock to the plan for the benefit of the company's employees" (SEC). ESOPs were given a specific statutory framework in 1974. (NCEO, 2005) and through the plan employees are allowed to own stock in their companies without having to purchase shares (Employee Stock). ESOPs are generally more common among closely held companies and are usually created when a retiring owner wants to transfer ownership of the company to one or more employees (Employee Stock). Similar to other quali fied deferred compensation plans, a company's ESOPs must not discriminate in their operations in favour of highly compensated employees, officers, or owners (NCEO, 2005). To achieve this, companies are required by law to appoint a trustee to act as the ESOP's plan fiduciary. This fiduciary could be anyone, while larger companies tend to appoint external trust institutions; smaller companies typically appoint a manager or create an ESOP trust committee. (NCEO, 2005) In setting up an ESOP, a company first approaches a lender to borrow money; this is known as a "leveraged" ESOP. In this approach, the company first sets up a trust, which then borrows money from a lending institution. The company then repays the loan by making tax-deductible contributions to the trust, which the trust gives to the lender. The loan however must and can only be used by the trust to acquire stock in the company. Benefits of ESOP's. The objective of most stock option plans is providing a kind of investment for employees so they also can become part owners of a company. It has been observed that companies with employee-owners often boast higher productivity and increased employee loyalty, longevity and satisfaction. This is due to the fact that the employees are indeed co-owners of the companies and this is translated into benefits such as: efficiency and productivity. According to management experts the best way to make employees owners is to give them shares in the company rather than asking them to pay for their shares. Another advantage of the ESOP is that it costs the employees nothing to co-own the company and after employees leave the company or retire, the company distributes to them the stock purchased on their behalf, or its cash value (NCEO, 2005). In return for agreeing to funnel the loan through the ESOP, the company can save money through a number tax is deferments until the employee retires (Employee Stock). This is done in a number of ways: First, the company can deduct the entire loan contribution it makes to the ESOP, within certain payroll-based limits as allowed by law. This means that a company can in effect deduct both interest and principal on the loan, not just interest. Secondly, the company can also deduct dividends paid on the shares acquired with the proceeds of the loan that are used to repay the loan itself (in other words, the earnings of the stock

The increasing cost of healthcare as new technologies are introduced Research Paper

The increasing cost of healthcare as new technologies are introduced - Research Paper Example nt of a variety of different diseases and ailments to a better degree, an underlying economic reality that is invariably represented has to do with the fact that the rapid level of technological advancement represented within the is causing an exponential growth with regard to the overall cost of healthcare. Essentially, the following research paper will be broken into four distinct components. The first of which is predicated upon seeking to define the problem and explain its overall relevance. The second relates to examining the problem from a variety of perspectives and utilizing economics as a means of educating the reader with respect to the complexities of the problem. Thirdly, the analysis will pose a potential solution to the problem and finally point out strengths and weaknesses associated with the proposed solution. It is the hope of this particular author that such a level of discussion and analysis will not only be beneficial with regard to understanding the issue but als o with respect to helping to correct it as future stakeholders will be able to recognize or issues and impact that continue to reduce the overall utility of healthcare by its cost ever upwards. By means of definition, the problem of technology and its growth is ultimately something of a double-edged sword. When one references the fact that limited levels of technology, exhibited during the early 19th century, created a drastically different Outlook for the patient, the reader can adequately see that a focus on improving medical technology and promoting development is as essential as any other aspect of the provision of quality care. Yet, as with any level of focus, it is necessary to understand the fact that there are other requirements that the healthcare profession must necessarily focus upon; not all of which are innately tied to the need to promote further levels of technology. In terms of analyzing this particular problem from a variety of economic perspectives, it should firstly

Search warrants and warrantless searches, can either make or break a Research Paper

Search warrants and warrantless searches, can either make or break a criminal case - Research Paper Example the one that will determine whether the defendant will be free to go before the trial is conducted or whether to hold them in the cells to await the trial in the courts (Scheb, 2011). Warrants are orders from the court that are issued by the judge, magistrate or supreme court official, that authorizes law enforcement officers to perform a search of an individual, a certain place, or even a motor vehicle as a proof of a criminal offence that is happening or did happen. There are certain jurisdictions, which do respect the law, its rules and a basic right to privacy which puts constraints on the control of police investigators and forces them to require a search warrant in order to conduct any search (Gardner et al., 2009). There are only few scenarios where this rule of law can be accepted, and that is when there is a hot pursuit. This is mostly when a criminal decides to escape from the crime scene. The police are forced to run after them, and in this scenario they can enter by force into the property that he has chosen to hide (Bernnat et al., 2011). In United States of America under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the police investigators are only required to conduct any search when having a warrant that has been issued by the judge, magistrate or the Supreme Court official. And this must also have a credible course. All the searches that are to be conducted have to be of a reasonable course and to the specifics. When a certain case from the archive is checked; Kentucky v.King, No.09-1272, where the ambush by the police in Lexington, was out of a mistaken judgment. The police officers witnessed a drug deal going on in a parking lot, and they hurriedly ran into a certain apartment house having a complex look for a suspect who had presently sold cocaine to an informer. When the case was heard by the Kentucky Supreme Court, the evidence was suppressed. It was stated that any risk of the drugs being destroyed was as an outcome of the

The Positive and Negative Aspects of Developing an Organizational Assignment - 1

The Positive and Negative Aspects of Developing an Organizational Culture - Assignment Example From this paper it is clear that specifically the presence of an organization culture can strongly influenced not only the business performance of a company but also the ability of the company to fulfill its current and future business goals. On the contrary, having a weak organizational culture can also lead to the development of a poor business performance. To ensure that business organizations could benefit from having a strong oranizational culture, this study will purposely examine the positive and negative features of organizational culture.   Commonly shared by the managers and staffs, the presence of a well-defined organizational vision, mission, and goals serve as a guiding attitude and behaviour within a business organization. This discussion outlines that employees within a business organization with strong culture are subconsciously sharing assumptions on how they will achieve the organizational goals. In the absence of any of these features, it would be more difficult on the part of the business managers to come up with more effective business decisions and strategies in the near future. Aside from having a clear organizational vision, mission, and goals, other typical features of having a strong organizational culture include:   having a unified organizational identity; performed work activities are considered as a group performance;   each department within the business organization are well-coordinated;   supervisors and business managers have a higher control over the group of employees; and   the team has a strong ability to control and tolerate risks and conflicts among others. Contrary to having a strong organizational culture, a business organization that has a weak organizational culture is often characterized by having no clear organizational vision, mission, and goals. It means that a business organization with a weak or no organizational culture are the ones that has a group of employees with no shared purpose.

Thomas King's Truth about Stories and Its Impact on Social Workers Assignment

Thomas King's Truth about Stories and Its Impact on Social Workers - Assignment Example I think this is a message that is especially important for social workers to keep in mind as they struggle to help those who are not a part of the dominant culture or socio-economic class. One thing that makes Kings message so effective is the personal tone in which he tells all his stories. He frequently speaks to the reader and is not shy about telling us when he is aiming for a story-telling tone. In the first chapter, he tells two different creation myths, one Christian, and one Native. The tones he uses to tell them are very different, as he points out afterwards. â€Å"In the Native story†, he says, â€Å"I tried to recreate an oral storytelling voice and craft the story in terms of a performance for a general audience† (King, 2003, p.22). However, the Christian version told with a less playful tone, used a â€Å"sober voice† which â€Å"makes for a formal recitation but creates a sense of veracity† (King, 2003, p.23). Kings stories in the book usually use a mix of these two tones, and the result is one which speaks directly to people and seems realistic without being unengaging. Also, the storytelling tone is part of the problem King wishes to speak about, that Native people are never really taken seriously and understood from their own points of view, but lumped into one big category, Native, and viewed as a sort of childish un-advanced race of people. As he says of his Native creation myth, â€Å"the conversation voice tends to highlight the exuberance of the story but diminishes its authority† (King, 2003, p.22-23). This, usually in the guise of focusing on Native performers who had to struggle to figure out whether they were still Native Americans or something else entirely, is a central theme throughout the book, along with the stereotyping that causes this main problem.

Organizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts Essay

Organizational Behavior Terminology and Concepts - Essay Example Deal and Kennedy (1982) refer to organizational culture as ‘the way things get done around here’. There are several different forms of organizational culture. Some of them include Process culture, which involves little or no feedback-such cultures are charged for being too bureaucratic but they are also known to be effective and consistent for public services; Task culture, which involves different teams for different tasks; Person culture, which involves individuals performing tasks on their own and consider themselves superior to the organization-however organizations adopting this form of culture face problems as it drifts away from the ‘group’ idea of the culture. Change of culture is a difficult task and requires huge resource investments because it is intensely established in the experience and background of an organization. Often, it is advised to outsource help from specialists outside the organization. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Organizational behavior has different viewpoints. There are mainly three perspectives: modern, symbolic and postmodern. According to American academia there are micro and macro distinctions. Micro refers to individual and small organizational behavior. ... Studying organizational behavior is very interesting and challenging at the same time. It shows different results for different individuals. It is interesting to see how a person reacts under some situation and the other individual reacts differently under the same situation and to compare the two. In well-known organizations importance is given to this study as it shows how to improve the state within an organization and improving the output of the personnel. DIVERSITY The basic meaning of diversity is variety. Diversity can be anywhere in individual, religion, mind set, language, culture etc. Each individual is different. It’s important that we recognize them, accept them and commemorate them. Diversity basically creates balance in our society. Diversity is used immensely in financial field, it generally relates to managing financial assets and to put customer’s money in different stocks so as to get positive results. If there is some negativity in one company’ s share the client can get positive result from other thus balancing the loss. Overtime diversity has changed a lot. Long time ago it was used for black people in our societies but now it is being used as Asians, Latinos, Americans. Diversity management is really important in an organization to keep the workers of any color, caste or creed or from different faith or religion collectively in one environment with peace and tranquility. We can’t ignore the role of diversity in our world but the important step is to take it positively and try to ignore the negative impacts of it. This is the only way we can make this world a better place. COMMUNICATION Communication or effective communication is the exchange of information between people or groups. It

Information Technology Coursework Essay Example for Free

Information Technology Coursework Essay Input The Keyboard The keyboard is essentially based on the standard QWERTY keyboard used by typists. The main differences are the additions made by computer manufacturers. The first thing to notice is that the keyboard has three main sections. The first section is the main QWERTY keyboard, which has three extra keys. The most important of these extra keys is usually marked ENTER or RETURN. The enter key is on the right side of the keyboard and is used to tell the computer that you have finished typing and wish either to move to a fresh empty line or that you want the computer to carry out the typed instruction. The other two additional keys are the ALT and the CONTROL keys (CTRL). These act in the same way as the shift key on the typewriter and so allow normal keys to have a number of different effects. The second part of the keyboard is the FUNCTION keys. There are always at least ten and sometimes twelve of these labelled F1 to F10 or F12, which are grouped together on the left of the keyboard or along the top of it. They are used by programs like word processors or spreadsheets to give instructions to the computer. They do not normally produce an effect on the screen but can do in some programs. The third part of the keyboard is the numeric key pad. This is situated on the right of the keyboard and serves two functions. Firstly, to move the cursor and secondly to type numbers into the computer. The keys on the keypad usually contain the numbers 0 to 9, the decimal point and the mathematical symbols. The key marked NUMLOCK is used to tell the computer if the pad is used to enter numbers (NUMLOCK ON) or to move the cursor (NUMLOCK OFF). Input The Mouse A mouse is a device, which can provide an alternative to the keyboard. The mouse itself has a small ball in its base which, when pulled across a smooth surface, moves a special cursor across the screen. This cursor can be used to draw or point and is especially effective in providing an easy to use interface for those who have difficulty with keyboards etc. Processing The Central Processing Unit Inside the microcomputer is a tiny silicon chip called the Central Processing Unit or CPU: this can be regarded as the brain of the entire system. With the help of the computers internal memory it executes the instructions in a program by performing simple logical operations at very high speeds typically an instruction will be performed in millionths of a second. The chip containing the Central Processing Unit or CPU is the place where the computer does its thinking. The CPU processes information by fetching a program instruction stored in the computers memory, executing the instruction and proceeding to the next step in the program. The CPU contains (1) a program counter that tells the CPU where it is in the program. (2) an instruction register that stores the current program instruction. (3) a control unit that decodes the contents of the instruction register. (4) data registers that store the small units of information the CPU is currently processing. (5) a memory address register that holds the address or memory location of the information in its data registers. (6) an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) that actually performs each small step in the program, and (7) a status or flags register that reports on the work of the ALU. The size or power of a CPU is determined by the length of its registers: 8-bit processors work on information in 8- bit groups; 16-bit processors have registers that hold 16 bits and are twice as fast. 32-bit processors provide even more computing speed, and so on. Internal Memory RAM and ROM Because the central processing unit only works on small pieces of information at a time, the computer needs a way to store information while it is not being processed. Two kinds of silicon chips serve as the computers internal memory. Random Access Memory or RAM chips store information temporarily, and the computer can write, read, and erase information on them. RAM chips are erased every time the computer is turned off, so Read Only Memory or ROM chips act as the computers permanent memory: they store the instructions the CPU needs when you first turn it on. External Memory Disks and Disk Drives External memory devices like floppy disks, hard disks, and CD-ROMs store programs and data when the computer is turned off. When a disk is inserted into a disk drive, the computer can read information from it or write new information onto it. Only certain types of CD-ROM can have information written onto them. Output: The Printer Printers receive electrical codes from the computer and then print the corresponding letter or number on paper. The result is called hard copy. Plotters and some printers can even reproduce computer graphics on paper. Types of Printer Ink Jet Printers Ink jet printers work as their name suggests, by squirting jets of ink onto the paper through tiny nozzles. Ink-jets provide good quality output (on average 600 dots per inch) at reasonable speed and at relatively low cost. Laser Printers A laser printer is essentially a photocopier attached to the computer as an output device. Laser printers are capable of high quality output (around 720 dots per inch), at high speed. They can be bought from as little as around à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100. Output Monitors (Visual Display Units) Monitors (V.D.U.s) are the most frequently used output device. The display is transmitted from the computer to the surface of a cathode ray tube, which is rather like a television screen. Slim, flat screen monitors are also available. The display consists of very small phosphorescent dots combined in different patterns to form words, numbers, and pictures. Monitors vary in their resolution (clarity), more dots on the screen means a higher resolution but obviously costs more. The range of resolutions are CGA, EGA and the highest resolution VGA. Software Computer Programs A program is simply a set of instructions, which the programmer wishes the computer to obey. The computer blindly obeys any instruction which it is given it possess no abilities to determine whether an instruction (so long as it is framed correctly) is the correct instruction for any given situation. Programs tell the computer how to turn the input you provide into the output you want. A program is therefore a detailed set of instructions for performing a particular task. Because you cannot actually touch programs they have become known as software; this contrasts with the hardware of a computer system monitors, chips, printers etc. which you can touch! Software takes many forms the computer system itself is co-ordinated by a special resident program called an operating system (you can read more about this program below), programs to carry out specific tasks for the user are termed application programs. Stock control, word processing, payroll and accounting functions are typical areas, which are serviced by application programs. Input/output Media Mass Storage Floppy Disks A floppy disk is 3 1/2 inches square. Inside its protective case or sleeve, each floppy disc is a circle of flexible plastic whose surface is covered with magnetic oxide. When you use a disc for the first time, you must use a special program called an operating system to format the disks surface by creating circular tracks divided into pie-shaped sectors. A hole punched near the hub of the disk lets the computer know where the first sector is. A track on each disk stores a directory that tells the computer where to find what information. This means that it can go directly to the correct part of the disk instead of wading through all of its contents to find the information it wants. A typical floppy disk can store around 200 pages of typewritten text, depending on how tightly the information is packed. If pictures are stored on disk, they take up a lot of room. Care of Floppy Disks Information is stored on floppy disk by means of magnetism. The information stored on a disk can be lost if the magnetic surface of the disk is damaged. When handling a disk you must be careful not to bend it or touch the exposed portions. Moisture, extreme temperatures, and exposure to magnetic fields or equipment can also ruin disks. You should keep back-up copies of all important disks to insure that your data will not be lost if a disk is damaged. You can guard against the possibility of accidentally writing over and erasing important data and programs by moving the small write-protect notch on the side of the disk. When this notch is closed, a sensor inside the drive prevents the head from writing onto the disk. Hard Disks All modern PCs have hard disks, which can store vast amounts of information this varies depending upon their size. Although they operate on the same basic principles as floppies, hard disks spin many times more quickly allowing the read/write head to pass only fractions of an inch over the disks surface. Hard disks are hermetically sealed in special chambers to prevent dust particles from ruining the disks surface. Disk Drives: Read/Write Heads To use a disk, you place it into a disk drive so that the circular hole in the centre of the disk fits into a cone in the drive. This cone spins the disk allowing all of its sectors to come under a window cut into the sleeve. As the disk spins around, a read / write head moves back and forth over the exposed portion of the disk. The head works like the head on a tape recorder. It reads information on the disk by translating its magnetic fields into electrical signals that are sent to the computer; information is written onto the disk when the head converts the electrical signals from the computer into magnetic fields on the disks surface. Operating Systems A computer is really a system of interconnected parts: a keyboard or input device; internal memory (RAM and ROM); a processor; disks and disk drives; output devices like a monitor and a printer; and, of course, software. A special kind of program called an operating system controls the flow of information between these different components. One of its most important jobs is to enable your hardware to understand the instructions of your software. When you buy a computer, you must be sure that its design or architecture is compatible with the operating system for which the software you want is written. The operating system manages the files on your disks and offers utilities such as formatting blank disks, listing the directory of files on a disk, as well as copying, renaming, and deleting files. Sometimes operating systems are permanently installed, but if the operating system is pre-packaged on a disk, its contents must either be loaded separately into the computer or written onto ev ery disk used, during the formatting process. Windows 95 and Windows 98 are the most common operating systems used today. Modems and Networks With the help of a modem, your computer can link up and communicate with other computers all over the world. The modem translates the computers language of ons and offs into tones of different frequencies, which are then transmitted across telephone lines. At the receiving end the process is reversed: a modem converts tone variations back into the computers digital code. Computer networks are systems of computers linked together in this way: they are used to send and receive electronic mail, and to allow small personal computers access to the vast data libraries of larger computers, via the Internet. COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Application Packages These are programs that actually perform the tasks that the user wishes to be done. The tasks are usually so complicated that several programs are required and these are collectively called a suite of programs. Typical examples of applications are Stock Control, Databases, Order Processing, Word Processing, Airline Booking Systems, Spreadsheets, Viewdata Systems and Point of Sale Systems. Each package will now be discussed in turn, to give a general explanation of what they are, when they are used and for what purpose. Stock Control A stock control system keeps track of all the stock currently held by the company. The computer is informed through the till when each item is sold. It is then an easy matter to deduct the number sold from the current stock level to give a new stock level. If this level is below a re-order level which again is held by the computer, then the computer can automatically print a re-order letter to the supplier. The number of each item to be supplied is stored and when the supplier delivers, the number of items delivered is added to the amount in stock. Therefore the company, in theory, should never, through its own efforts, run out of any item of stock and should at all times know how much stock it has, in the warehouse, in storage at a retail outlet and on the shelves. Losses through theft are easily calculated through a manual shelf count, and corrective action to reduce losses can be implemented quickly. Database A database is a store of information made up of records. A record contains information relating to one person or one company and is made up of individual pieces of information called fields. For example, you may create your records having the following fields: company name, address, telephone number, credit limit, amount owed, payment due etc. When all the information has been entered the database may then be used by searching for particular information, called cross-referencing (e.g. to find out at the end of the month who the company owes money to and how much, in order to settle their accounts). New information can be fed in and the database is changed (updated) to include the new data, so that it is always up to date. Large databases are best used with static information (remains the same), with new records being added to the end. An example of this type is a Library with records on all the books in stock. The computer operated by the DVLA in Swansea (Driving Vehicle Licensing Authority) might be an example of a large database. Information relating to every motor vehicle in the U.K. is stored on computer and can be sorted or searched to find out, for example, who owns a particular car. Word Processing In word processing a computer behaves like a much enhanced form of typewriter. Facilities are provided for entering, manipulating, storing and retrieving blocks of text. This means that standard letters and lists of names and addresses can be generated separately and then letters to everyone on the list can be printed without retyping the document. The processor retrieves the letter and the first name and address, prints the letter, retrieves the next name and address, changes the information in the letter, prints the next letter and so on. Real-Time Systems An example of a real-time system is Airline Booking. This is a system which updates the data immediately it changes. All the terminals in all the booking offices are connected via a telephone line to a large computer in the head office of the company. This is so that information can be accessed immediately and be changed on confirmation of a booking immediately. For example, if you wanted to book a flight, you would feed details into the terminal about the flight, and back would come a message saying perhaps that only two seats remain on that flight. If you then take these seats by sending that information back, confirmation would take place and then no-one anywhere in the world would be able to book a seat on that particular flight (even if they tried to book only ten seconds after you). Spreadsheet A spreadsheet is a special application package, which allows the user to set up tables of information and add up rows and columns which make up the table. They are used mainly for displaying cash forecasts of companies, in the form of a table where all the figures are interconnected. Each intersection of a row and a column is called a cell. The cells are filled with figures and then changes can be made and the spreadsheet calculates all the related cells, alters and reprints them. Figures can be changed and the overall effect on the complete table can be seen immediately.

The Cold War Between The USSR And US

The Cold War Between The USSR And US The time in the Cold War era between 1945-1991 was a turbulent direction for both the newly amassed superpowers of the United States and Soviet Union. The cold war is referenced as a continuous time of military and political tension between powers of the United States with NATO and other allies and the Soviet Union with the Warsaw Pact and other allies. The Arms race in the Cold War, had profoundly negative effects on the opposing superpowers. These effects created a deteriorating relationship between the USA and the USSR, the Cuban Missile Crisis and contributed to the financial downfall of the Soviet Union in its final days. The United States and Russia have a much more acceptable relationship in the current day, but in the Cold War era, the hostilities rose to a near breaking point level. Hypothetically, if hostilities were not prevented in time, the world could have been permanently silenced through a potential Nuclear holocaust. The United States and the Soviet Union relationship during the Arms Race period in the Cold War era was one of unpredictable possibility; brimming with hostility and tension. The two nations promoted opposing political and economic ideology and the two nations competed for international control. This aroused a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle, lasting from 1947 to the period leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union on December 26, 1991. With Capitalism versus Communism as a constant factor; ever present between the two factions, relationships between governments and citizens of two began to disassemble. Stocking of Weapons of Mass Destruction, also kept the intimidation factor present along with unrivaled competition between both countries. With these factors present, the Mutual Assured Destruction doctrine of military strategy and national security policy was put into effect. M.A.D consisted of full-scale use of weapons of mass destruction by two rivaling sides. W hich, would effectively result in destruction of both the attacker and the defender, becoming a war that has no victory but only total destruction. With this as an ever present danger, both sides remained hostile but did not commit to weapon fire. Obviously knowing the dire consequences that would result. The compilation of Nuclear Armament was only one tool used between the two nations in this Silent War. Propaganda by both countries and assimilation of other nations by the U.S and Soviets was a factor as well. Propaganda posters consisted of anti-communist art on the US side while anti-capitalism was present on the Soviets side. With propaganda influencing citizens of both countries, any Necessary actions needed to be taken by either country, would have most likely been uncontested by civilians. Due to the rising hostilities and danger. Present danger not only due to Nuclear armaments, but from shadow wars as well. An example would be the communist occupation of Vietnam. War histo rians often say that the viet cong who fought aggressively against the United states, were only the tools of communist Russia to indirectly fight the united states. With immense numbers of casualties present for both vietnam and united states, relations between them soured. This war helped fuel the Russian machine to create more weapons and fuel communist encroachment upon other countries. This war was not only of contested territory, but a source of wealth for russia. With Viet-cong needing weapon and russia supplying them, wealth was made. The united states had discovered this and it became essentially a war against communism. The United States and Russia often had times of dà ©tente; which gave the race brief periods of break for negotiations and other settlements. The presence of periods eventually allowed the competing superpowers to come to a settlement and end superpower cold war/arms race, allowing the world to finally relax from pure tension. The Cuban missile crisis was the most severe Cold War confrontation between the United States and the USSR and that took place in October, 1962. The U.S. discovered that the Soviets were in the process of positioning nuclear missiles in Communist Cuba. The United States then tried to interrupt and stop the process by placing naval blockade to stop Soviet ships carrying missiles to Cuba. On October 22, U.S. military alert was set at Defcon 3 and Fidel Castro began to mobilizes all of his military forces. On October 24, Soviet ships entered the quarantine line placed by the US and received orders from Moscow to hold their positions while being backed up by Soviet reinforcements. President John F Kennedy concluded that if he attempted to invade within ten days, the missile bases in Cuba would likely fire a portion of the missiles at US targets. With the missiles armed with nuclear warheads, the result would have disastrous. On October 25, American military units were forced to enter Def con 2- the highest of all time in U.S. history. On October 26, Khrushchev received a cable message from Fidel Castro demanding a nuclear strike against the US in the event Cuba was actually invaded. The intensified moment of the Cuban Missile Crisis was during the evening of Saturday, 27 October 1962, when the negotiations of the crisis, had disappeared . Soviet ships didnt try to break the U.S naval blockade of Cuba, but, Soviet missile bases stayed on the island and were becoming operational and ready to fire. President Kennedy was pressured to order an air strike or invasion was increasing rapidly, especially after the American U-2 reconnaissance plane was taken down over in cuba that same Saturday afternoon and its pilot was unfortunately killed. Any hope of a resolution to the crisis that could be achieved between Washington and Moscow had begun to disappear. A letter from Soviet leader Khrushchev arrived on that Saturday morning demanding that the United States needed to agree to remove its Jupiter ballistic missiles from Turkey in for the Soviets removal of missiles from Cuba. Khrushchev`s letter was felt to U.S. officials as an ominous event of the Soviet decision from the older letter from Khrushchev, didnt mention the U.S missiles in Turkey but instead implied that Washingtons agreement not to invade Cuba at the time would have been sufficient to end the need for Soviet`s nuclear protection of Castros government. On October 28, the crisis finally ends with the U.S agreement to remove their Jupiter missiles from Turkey. During a speech aired on Moscow Radio, Khrushchev announced the process of dismantling the Soviet missiles in Cuba and insisted on his demands concerning the elimination of U.S. missiles from Turkey. During the Cuban missile crisis, both superpowers discovered that risking war in pursuit of political ideals and gain was intelligibly too dangerous. It was the final event during the Cold War that both sides would escalate hostilities to create a hazard of this level. Even after the Crisis, the USSR and U.S still imposed their competition in conflicts in other locations of the planet . Africas independent nations such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, received military interruption from the United States and the USSR. In this era, Cuba played a significant role alongside the USSR. The Chinese, who were now cautious of the USSR, participated against them on the side of the United States. The early 1980s was the concluding area of disputes between the United States and the USSR, resulting directly from the 1979 Soviets invasion of Afghanistan to establish and create a Communist regime. In 1983, president Ronald Reagan announced the creation of Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). SDI is was brought forward as a satellite defense system, which would destroy incoming missiles in space. During August of 1985, the Soviet Union announced a nuclear testing pausing. In December of 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces; the first arms accord signed by both Washington and Moscow that calls for the elimination the intermediate-range ballistic missiles. During July of 1991, the U.S. and the USSR signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Act finally ceasing anything related to a Cold War or an Arms race. The world was finally at peace from a possible Nuclear fallout. The downfall of Soviet Union can be connected to the Arms race between the two superpowers of the U.S and the USSR. The results from the arms race left too much unused waste material, such as the stockpile of nuclear warheads and costed both superpowers a hefty sum. The Soviets continued to invest too much currency into their government to keep up with the U.S. The Soviets had to increase effort to reach where they were before the escalation and the results to this upsurge were not pleasant. The Soviet economy was becoming stagnant, while their military spending passed the threshold of acceptable. President Reagans Defense Initiative was a threat that needed to be countered, and the Soviets threw increased amounts of money at the military . The US had spent about 18% of its Gross Domestic Product at their military, while the Soviets were spending up to 35%. This resulted in Russia bankrupting itself. There was far too much nepotism of government elites, and tampering with the account s and ledgers to fulfil the plans. The Soviet economy was becoming stagnant, while their military spending passed the threshold of acceptable. To stop all stagnation occurring, Gorbachev introduced the ideals of Glasnost and Perestroika to patch the communist system, and make it work more suitable. All it really did was allow people to openly criticise their system and soon there was a calling for it to be replaced by citizens. The Communist ideology was not delivering theparadise for workers the government had promised, wages were stagnant, housing was poor, transport was difficult and from the lifestyle was extremely different from the West. Soviet children were becoming languor of being told that they watch certain films, that they couldnt listen to music from the west, and listen to Western Radio station. Glasnost had allowed them to speak out against their regime and allowed them to listen music they chose. In the Republics, people were becoming tired of the Soviets. Citizens w anted to govern themselves, or have more choice within the Soviet idea, but the government would not falter. Glasnost created the opportunity where they could criticise and begin to organise themselves. Eventually the people in the Republics started protesting, requesting independence, and after the collapse of the union, it was achieved. The event that finally ceased the Soviet Union into the history was the failed coup of August 1991. Communist associates attempted to remove Gorbachev from office, and place in a more stalinist style government. In two months of the coup the Soviet Union was no longer existed. In all of this, was the fact that the state elite no longer believed in communism ideals, and began to see how capitalism gave the chance to gain wealth like their Western rivals earn. The elite abandoned any previous thoughts of communism from 1989 and below, setting up banks and businesses and taking ownership of the companies where they worked. The final revolution had end ed the Soviet Union. In conclusion, the Arms race in the Cold War era between the USSR and U.S in 1945-1991 was a poor situation for both superpowers. The Arms race in the Cold War, had negative results on the opposing superpowers. Due to the cold war being a continuous state of political and military tension between the United States with NATO and other allies; against powers like the Soviet Union with the Warsaw Pact and other allies.These effects created a deteriorating relationship between the USA and the USSR, the Cuban Missile Crisis and contributed to the financial downfall of the Soviet Union in its final days. The United States and Russia have a much more acceptable relationship in the current day, but in the Cold War era, the hostilities rose to a near breaking point level. The events that occured, created a time in history that can be referenced for many generations of how competing ideologies and too much power competition between superpower countries can result in dire situations like the of October 25 of 1962 if not handled correctly.